42. P. Brugger et al., «Beyond Re-membering: Phantom Sensations of Congenitally Absent Limbs,» Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 97:6167-72 (2000).
43. See § 12 and § 13 of The Ethics.
CHAPTER 4
1. Adapted from the case report of a sixty-eight-year-old woman suffering from stroke-related, transient alien hand syndrome. From D. H. Geschwind et al., «Alien Hand Syndrome: Interhemispheric Disconnection Due to Lesion in the Midbody of the Corpus Callosum,» Neurology 45:802–808 (1995).
2. See K. Goldstein, «Zur Lehre der Motorischen Apraxie,» Jour. fur Psychologie und Neurologie 11:169–187 (1908); W. H. Sweet, «Seeping Intracranial Aneurysm Simulating Neoplasm,» Arch. Neurology & Psychiatry 45:86-104 (1941); S. Brion & C.-P. Jedynak, «Troubles du Transfert Interhemispherique (Callosal Disconnection). A Propos de Trois Observations de Tumeurs du Corps Calleux. Le Signe de la Main Etrangere,» Revue Neurologique 126:257–266 (1972); G. Goldberg et al., «Medial Frontal Cortex Infarction and the Alien Hand Sign,» Arch. Neurology 38:683–686 (1981). For an important new conceptual distinction, see C. Marchetti & S. Della Sala, «Disentangling the Alien and the Anarchic Hand,» Cog. Neuropsychiatry 3:191–207 (1998).
3. Goldberg et al., «Medial Frontal Cortex Infarction,» 684 (1981).
4. G. Banks et al., «The Alien Hand Syndrome: Clinical and Postmortem Findings,» Arch. Neurology46:456–459 (1989).
5. Ibid.
6. For more on the representational architecture of volition and akinetic mutism, see T. Metzinger, «Conscious Volition and Mental Representation: Towards a More Fine-Grained Analysis,» in Natalie Sebanz & Wolfgang Prinz, eds., Disorders of Volition (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006).
7. S. Kremer et al., Letter to the Editor, «The Cingulate Hidden Hand,»
Jour. Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 70:264–265 (2001); see also a classical study by I. Fried et al., «Functional Organization of Human Supplementary Motor Cortex Studied by Electrical Stimulation,» Jour. Neurosci. 11:3656-66 (1991). In this study, subjects stimulated with electrical currents of different strength reported the illusory conscious perception of ongoing movement, or the anticipation of movement, or the «urge» to perform a movement, all «in the absence of overt motor activity.»
8. D. M. Wegner & T. Wheatley, «Apparent Mental Causation: Sources of the Experience of Will,» Amer. Psychol. 54(7):480–492 (1999).
9. Wegner & Wheatley, «Apparent Mental Causation» (1999), 488.
10. Ibid., 483.
11. See, for instance, P. Haggard, «Conscious Awareness of Intention and of Action,» in Johannes Rossler & Naomi Eilan, eds.,