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Teece, D. 1986. Profiting from technological innovation: Implications for integration, collaboration, licensing and public policy. Research Policy 15, 285–305.

S. P. Schnaars provides numerous case histories of late entrants winning against pioneers. See Schnaars, S. P. 1994. Managing imitation strategies: How late entrants seize markets from pioneers. New York: Free Press.

Connor, C. 2008. Interview with author, October 24.

See, for instance, Schnaars, Managing imitation strategies.

Mansfield, E., Schwartz, M., and Wagner, S. 1981. Imitation costs and patents: An empirical study. Economic Journal 91 (December), 907–918; Levin, R., et al. 1984. Survey research on R&D appropriability and technological opportunity. Working Paper Part 1: Appropriability. New Haven, CT: Yale University; Burns, G. 1995. A Fruit Loop by any other name… BusinessWeek, June 26, 73–76, as cited in Collins-Dodd, C., and Zaichkowsky, J. L. 1999. National brand responses to brand imitation: Retailers versus other manufacturers. Journal of Product and Brand Management 8, 2, 96–105; Belson, K. 2008. Hertz tosses some car keys into the ring, battling Zipcar. Wall Street Journal, December 17, B7.

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Nordhaus, Schumpeterian profits in the American economy: Theory and measurement; Bayus, B. L., Erickson, G., and Jacobson, R. 2003. The financial rewards of new product introductions in the personal computer industry. Management Science 49, 2, p. 198; Mansfield, E., Rapoport, J., Schnee, J., Wagner, S., and Hamburger, M. 1971. Research and innovation in the modern corporation. New York: Norton.

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Michael Tomasello, as cited in Hurley, S., and Chater, N. 2007. Introduction: The importance of imitation. In Perspectives on imitation: From neuroscience to social science, eds. S. Hurley and N. Chater. Cambridge, MA: MIT.

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Rosenberg, N. 1976. Perspectives on technology. New York: Cambridge University Press; Rosenberg, N. 1982. Inside the black box: Technology and economics. New York: Cambridge University Press, cited in Schmitz, J. A. 1989. Imitation, entrepreneurship, and long-run growth. Journal of Political Economy 97, 3, 721–739; Pennington, A. Y. 2006. Copy that: In business, imitation is more than a form of flattery. Entrepreneur Magazine, March.

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From an abstract of Sargent, W. R. 2008. Send Us No More Dragons: Chinese Porcelains and Decorative Arts for the Western Market. Lecture at Ohio State University, October 3.

Westney, E. 1987. Imitation andinnovation: The transfer of Western organizational patterns to Meiji Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Tomasello, M., Kruger, A. C., and Ratner, H. H. 1993. Cultural learning. Behavioral Brain Sciences 16, 495–552; Zentall, Imitation: Definitions, evidence, and mechanisms; Hurely, S. 2004. Imitation, media violence, and freedom of speech. Philosophical Studies 117, 165–218; Hurley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation, 1; Byrne, R. W. 2003. Imitation as behavior parsing. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences 358, 1431, 529–536; Zentall, T., and Akins, C. 2001. Imitation in animals: Evidence, function and mechanisms. In Avian visual cognition, ed. R. G. Cook. Comparative Cognition Press [online], 2001, http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/avc/akins/; Brown, J. H., and Kodric-Brown, A. 1979. Convergence, competition and mimicry in a temperate community of hummingbird-pollinated flowers. Ecology 60, 5, 1022–1035; W. H. L. 1870. Imitation. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 1, 11, 43.

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Ludlam, T. 2008. Interview with author, May 8.

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Yando, R., Seitz, V., and Zigler, E. Imitation: A developmental perspective; Bandura, A. 1977. Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; for a sociological view, see Goffman, E. 1959. The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday; Michael Tomasello, as cited in Hurley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation; Iacoboni, Mirroring people; Meltzoff, A., and Moore, M. K. 1994. Imitation, memory and the representation of persons. Infant Behavior and Development 17, 83–99; Wohlschlager, A., Gattis, M., and Bekkering, H. 2003. Action generated and action perception in imitation: An instance of the ideomotor principle. Philosophical Transactions Review Society of London B358, 501–515, cited in Gfallese, V. 2003. The manifold nature of interpersonal relations: The quest for a common mechanism. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 358, 1431, 517–528.

Yando, Seitz, and Zigler, Imitation: A developmental perspective; Byrne, R. W. 2005. Social cognition: imitation, imitation, imitation. Current Biology 15, 13, R4985–00; Whiten, A. 2005. The imitative correspondence problem: Solved or sidestepped? In Perspectives on imitation, eds. Hurley and Chater, 220; Harley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation, 2; Byrne, Imitation as behavior parsing; Rizzolatti, G., and Sinigaglia, C. 2008. Mirrors in the brain: How our minds share actions and emotions. Trans. F. Anderson. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Gombrich, E. H. 2002. Art and illusion: A study in the psychology of pictorial representation. New York: Phaidon; Danto, A. C. 1981. The transfiguration of the commonplace: A philosophy of art. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; Olson, E. 1952. The poetic method of Aristotle. In English Institute Essays, ed. A. S. Downer. New York: English Institute, which notes that Aristotle was more appreciative of imitation; Jenkins, I. 1942. Imitation and expression in art. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 2, 5, 42–52; Harkness, B. 1954. Imitation and theme. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 12, 4, 499–508; Coomaraswamy, A. K. 1945. Imitation, expression, and participation. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 3, 11/12, 62–72, cite on 64.

Child, A. 1952. History as imitation. Philosophical Quarterly 2, 8 (July), 193–207.

Berg, M. 2002. From imitation to invention: Creating commodities in eighteenth century Britain.

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Byrne, Imitation as behavior parsing; Byrne, Social cognition: Imitation, imitation, imitation; Meltzoff, A. N., and Prinz, W., eds., 2002. The imitative mind: Development, evolution, and brain bases. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Chaminade, T. J., Grezes, J., and Meltzoff, J. 2002. A PET exploration of neural mechanisms involved in reciprocal imitation. Neurolmage 15, 265–272; Kymissis, E., and Poulson, C. L. 1990. The history of imitation in learning theory; the language acquisition process. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 54, 113–127; Hurely, Imitation, media violence, and freedom of speech; Yando, Seitz, and Zigler, Imitation: A developmental perspective.

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Alchian, A. A. 1977. Economic forces at work. Indianapolis: Liberty Press; Bikchandani, S., Hirschleifer, D., and Welch, I. 1992. A theory of fads, fashion, custom and cultural change as informational cascades. Journal of Political Economy 100, 5, 992–1026; К. H. Schlag, Why imitate, and if so, how. Journal of Economic Theory 78, 130–156.

Kandori, M. G., Mailath, G., and Rob, R. 1993. Learning, mutation, and long run equilibria in games. Econometrica 61, 29–56; Gregoire, P., and Robson, A. 2003. Imitation, group selection, and cooperation. International Game Theory Review 5, 3, 229–247; De Marchi, N., and Van Miegroet, H. J. Ingenuity, preference and the pricing of pictures: The Smith-Reynolds connection. In Economic engagements with art, eds. D. De Marchi and С. C. W. Goodwin. Durham: University of North Carolina Press, 379–412, cited in Berg, From imitation to invention: Creating commodities in eighteenth century Britain.

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Rosenberg, N. 1976. Plrspectives on technology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

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Iacoboni, Mirroring people; Hurley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation.

Comin, D., and Hobijn, B. 2003. Cross-country technology adoption: Maying the theories face the facts. Federal Reserve Bank of New York Staff Reports no. 169. Washington, DC: Federal Reserve Bank.

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Ibid.; Dumaine, B. 1991. Closing the innovation gap. Fortune, December 2, cited in Arayama, Y., and Mourdoukoutas, P. 1999. China against herself: Innovation or imitation in global business? Westport, CT: Quorum.

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Ibid.; Freeman, C. 1965. Research and development in electronic capital goods. National Institute of Economic Review 14 (November), 40–97. Also cited by Usselman, S. W. 1993. IBM and its imitators. Business and Economic History 22, 2, p. 17.

Diamond, J. 2005 (1997). Guns, germs and steel. New York: Norton; Westney, D. E. 1987. Imitation and innovation: The transfer of Western organizational patterns in Meiji Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Bonabeau, E. 2004. The perils of the imitation age. Harvard Business Review, June, 45–54.

O’Brien, J. 2008. Interview with author, December 16.

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Diamond, Guns, germs and steel.

Comin, D., and Hobijn, B. 2003. Cross-country technology adoption: Making the theories face the facts. Staff Report No. 169, Federal Reserve Bank of New York; Yorgaso, D. R. 2007. Research and development activities of US multinational companies. Survey of Current Business, March 2007.

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Daley, C. 2008. Interview with author, November 18.

Hurley and Chater, eds., Perspectives on imitation: From neuroscience to social science.

Cowan and Foray, The economics of codification and the diffusion of knowledge.

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Byron, E. 2008. A new odd couple: Google, P&G, swap workers to spur innovation. Wall Street Journal, November 18, 1.

Cowan and Foray, The economics of codification and the diffusion of knowledge, 611.

Cowan, David, and Foray, The explicit economics of knowledge codification and tacitness.

Neisser, The imitation of man by machine. There is a common confusion in the strategy literature between tacit and complex knowledge. Complex knowledge is especially amenable to codification, and in fact its very complexity requires codification as a way to deal with multiple variables and relationships.

Ludlam, T. 2008. Interview with author, May 8.

Diamond, Guns, germs and steel, 407.

Cho, D. S., Kim, D. J., and Rhee, D. K. 1998. Latecomer strategies: Evidence from the semiconductor industry in Japan and Korea. Organization Science 9, 4, 489–505.

Agarwal, R., and Gort, M. 2001. First-mover advantage and the speed of competitive entry, 1887–1986. Journal of Law and Economics XLIV, 161–177.

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Collins, H. M. 1974. The TEA set: Tacit knowledge in scientific networks. Science Studies 4, 165–186, cited in Cowan, David, and Foray, The explicit economics of knowledge codification and tacitness.

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Mansfield, E., Schwartz, M., and Wagner, S. 1981. Imitation costs and patents: An empirical study. Economic Journal 91 (December), 907–918; Levin, R. C, Klevorick, A. K., Nelson, R. R., and Winter, S. G. 1987. Appropriating the returns from industrial research and development. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 3, 783–831. Another study reports that patents increased imitation costs by 30 percent for pharmaceuticals, 20 percent for chemicals, and 7 percent for electronics. See Mansfield, Schwartz, and Wagner, Imitation costs and patents: An empirical study.

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Beirne, M. 2008. Ted’s Dead. Brandweek.com, June 5.

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Doganis, R. 2001. The airline business in the 21st century. London: Routledge; Morrell, P. 2005. Airlines within airlines: An analysis of US network airline responses to low cost carriers. Journal of Air Transport Management 11, 303–312.

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Wingfield, K. 2002. My stupid business. Wall Street Journal, September 15–16, A9.

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Start up is chasing the long-haul dream. 2008. Financial Times, November 26, 25.

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Alaska Air makes moves in fight for low operating costs. 2006. Puget Sound Business Journal, December 4; How US Airways vaulted to first place. 2008. Wall Street Journal, July 22, D3.

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